Grey Zone Warfare: Way Ahead
for India
Lieutenant General Dushyant Singh, PVSM, AVSM (Retd)
Introduction
Grey Zone has become the preferred choice of countries to secure their national interests due to its low cost and deniability. The book ‘Grey Zone Warfare: Way Ahead for India’ written by Lieutenant General Dushyant Singh has attempted to demystify the grey zone and examined the way countries are indulging in this as well as highlighted the threats being faced by India. Warfare has changed and technology has been the prime driver of change, in a widened spectrum where the dimensionality is expanding to include multiple domains, as the distinctions between war and peace are blurring. Terms such as political war, economic war, cyber war, lawfare, information war fourth and fifth generation war, irregular war, proxy war and hybrid war are now all part of the lexicon. The book, while examining the complexity of this form of warfare also suggests the level and nature of response and has given out suggested structural changes in the security architecture.
About the Author
Lieutenant General Dushyant Singh, PVSM, AVSM was commissioned into 9 MARATHA Light Infantry in Dec 1981 and subsequently commanded the battalion. He has held numerous command, staff and instructional appointments and served in varied terrains including command of his Brigade and Division in Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) and the prestigious 11 Corps in Punjab. An alumnus of the National Defence College, he attended the Defence Counter Terrorism Programme at the Naval Post Graduate School in the United States (US) where he specialised in terrorist operations and financing and has served twice in the National Security Guard. A scholar and prolific writer who headed the Army War College, is presently the Director General Centre for Land Warfare Studies.
About the Book
The book has eight chapters and six appendices. The first Chapter talks about ‘Grey Zone being the Emerging Frontier in War’. The author gives an example of the targeting of the Mumbai electricity grid, which started on 10 Oct 2020. He says that the “COVID-19 crisis complicated the grey zone conflict space with countries creating unproven narratives to play the blame game or to meet national interests”. He further questions if “India’s weak response in this domain and wonders whether it is due to idealism, a lack of capability or a lack of will by our national leadership”.
In the Chapter ‘Demystifying Grey Zone Warfare’, the author states that ‘The name is slightly misleading’ as it is not a zone that can be defined geographically but owes its origin to a ‘Colour-based Metaphor’. While explaining various terms, he says that the difference compared to ‘Hybrid Warfare’ is that it is a “State between war and peace where an aggressor aims to reap either political or territorial gains associated with overt military action without crossing the threshold of open warfare”.
“War in the 21st Century is conducted at a roughly four-to-one ratio of non-military and traditional military tools and tactics” is a quote from General Gerasimov and, thereafter, the author tells us about ‘Russia being an adept practitioner’. The six stages of the Gerasimov Doctrine are explained and an interesting dimension of the denial of the doctrine itself by Michael Kofman of the Wilson Centre. The author also gives examples of Russian action in the grey zone ranging from its ‘Nuclear campaign to maintain a strategic advantage with the US’ to expanding its influence across the globe. Russia ‘Has played the grey zone with all instruments of statecraft’.
In chapter four, the author terms ‘US the Subtle Player’ and quotes a study by Lindsey O’Rourke, where he says that between 1947 and 1989, the US attempted 72 regime changes of which 64 were covert. Lately, they have been involved in the ‘War on Terror’ in Afghanistan and removing dictatorial regimes in Iraq and Libya. While overtly the reasons for intervention may seem simplistic, they were primarily linked to securing US interests. The activities range from proxy wars and economic coercion to information operations, the last of which have a major advantage of a ‘Lack of Attributability’. This includes the media campaign launched against India to back which he has quoted articles from various US newspapers.
Quoting a maxim of Sun Tzu, ‘Subdue the enemy without fighting’, the author states that “The Dragon is not far Behind in the Grey World”. Its ‘favoured tools being information operations’ that include stifling criticism of the Chinese Communist Party by dissidents abroad. He states, “Unrestricted Warfare appears to be the overarching concept of conduct and ‘the three-warfare strategy’ is the means to operationalise this”. The Peoples’ Liberation Army Strategic Support Force is at the forefront of this, especially through its Network Systems Department. Quoting Colonel Xiangsui, he says, “All means will be in readiness, that information will be omnipresent and the battlefield will be everywhere. It means weapons and technology can be superimposed at will and the boundaries between military and non-military and war and peace will be destroyed”. There are no rules, ethics or limits. The author says that “China considers India as its major challenger in regional dynamics, therefore, it aims at keeping India unsettled”.
Chapter six is regarding Israel, who he calls the master of grey zone warfare, but it has a chink in its armour. Their grey zone warfare tactics largely target countries such as Lebanon, Syria and Iran as well as non-state actors such as Hamas and Hezbollah. Israel has consistently mixed its warfighting with grey zone actions. This includes assassinations and the book covers in detail the elimination of Mohsen Fakhrizadeh, a nuclear scientist, by “A high tech computerised sharpshooter kitted with artificial intelligence and multiple camera eyes operated via a satellite”. Though Israel did not claim the act, many believe they were responsible.
He also tells us how they carried out a cyber-attack disrupting the Iranian nuclear weapon development programme by the ‘StuxNet’ virus. However, he states that Israel has been constantly under attack in the information domain from the Palestine Liberation Organisation and Hamas. They then countered this with a concept named ‘Hasbara’ and this has been refined by a new policy that was more centralised and incorporated a greater number of social media platforms.
Chapters seven and eight are the essence of the book and give out the author’s views on ‘India’s Challenges’ and ‘How it should organise itself’. While writing about the threats posed by China, the author states that “China perceives the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue to be directly linked to its security interests so it is unlikely to escalate border skirmishes into a major conflict”, and is likely to continue playing in the grey zone by salami slicing and various other means including cyber-attacks, regime changes in India’s neighbourhood, Myanmar being a present case, information operations and leveraging countries against India, as was done by Nepal, raising the Lipulekh border dispute during the Galwan crisis.
Pakistan, he states is a ‘Past Master’ and has spent ‘Minuscule sums in terms of military and finances’ in waging a proxy war. Disproportionate outcomes below the threshold of war ‘Have consistently encouraged Pakistan to consistently resort to non-military goals to achieve its objectives’. Punjab and J&K stand out as examples and in the latter, they are using the diplomatic domain to make it a ‘Multi-lateral rather than bilateral issue’. The Inter-Services Intelligence, Pakistan’s intelligence agency, controls its terror groups which they use against India.
Strategic communication forms an important component of grey zone warfare. Social media and digital manipulation are the new tools of misinformation. Social media is the ‘Domain for the future’. He even gives out case studies including the Shaheen Bagh protest to support his argument.
At the core of information warfare is ‘Building a strong narrative’. He then goes on to suggest various communication strategies for social media, print media and traditional electronic media. Quoting Lieutenant General Ata Hasnain, he talks of the need to establish a body to handle information warfare, this was reinforced by Lieutenant General PS Rajeshwar who said, “If the handling of security related information domain is perceived as saddling the Information and Broadcasting Ministry with too many tasks, perhaps it’s time to look at a National Strategic Communication Authority”.
There is a need to evolve solutions both for offence and defence in the grey zone. A requirement of greater synergy is necessary between all components of the security architecture dovetailed with our foreign policy objectives. The whole nation’s approach to national security matters. However, there cannot be a traditionally laid down black-and-white document on the grey zone policy.
Comments
Due to the inherent advantages of operating in shades of grey, various nation-states are using it as a favoured tool to secure a strategy and the advent of technology has made it a preferred form of combat. There is no doubt that the way forward to tackle the grey zone threat is an ‘All nations approach’ which has been brought out by the author. This includes integrating all agencies dealing with the grey zone while at the same time not compromising on our stated stand of a rules-based international order.
Galwan was by far the most skilful grey zone activity of China. The Chinese are upset with India due to its stand on the spread of the Corona Virus, the abrogation of Articles 370 and 35A and the construction of the Leh-Darbuk-Shyok-DBO Road, decided to test the Indian resolve to defend its territory.
The book, which is meticulously researched is a work of scholarship whose arguments are backed by adequate references. It will be extremely useful to the practitioners and policymakers in the security fraternity in getting clarity on the complexities of grey zone warfare.
The ambiguity of grey zones will continue to be exploited at multiple levels by nations to overcome international laws and create an ambiguous world order. The challenge is how to preserve the values and rules of combat in an environment where ‘There are no rules and nothing is forbidden’.
Major General Jagatbir Singh, VSM (Retd)
Grey Zone Warfare: Way Ahead for India by Lieutenant General Dushyant Singh PVSM, AVSM (Retd), Pages 274, Price B 1450/-, ISBN 978-81-19438-02-0, Vij Books.
Journal of the United Service Institution of India, Vol. CLIV, No. 636, April-June 2024.
Review Article 2
Bridging Borders: Indo-Nepal Relations in a Changing Landscape
Lieutenant General Shokin Chauhan, PVSM,
YSM, SM, VSM, PhD (Retd)
Bridging Borders: Indo-Nepal Relations in a Changing Geopolitical Landscape’ is a new book by Lieutenant General Shokin Chauhan, a military author and a second-generation Gorkha officer, who was also India’s Defence Attaché to Nepal from 2004 to 2007. He has also been the Director General Assam Rifles and later was the Chairman of the Ceasefire Monitoring Group in Nagaland.
The author’s first-hand experience of Nepal and the Gorkhas takes the reader on a journey through the shared footprints of the history of India and Nepal; on the Indo-Nepal bridging relations and, thereby, bridging borders. The research topic ‘Bridging Borders: India-Nepal Relations in a Changing Geopolitical Landscape’ for the United Service Institution of India led to this timely book release for the Indian academics and Nepal-China watchers who think of having a friendly nation to its north between its adversary China to its further north, with its Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) under the Chinese control.
‘The history of the people is the story of their survival and growth on the land’ discovers and traces the centuries-old bonds forged through trade, culture, and interwoven destinies, shaping a relationship critical to the region’s stability. The stories of both India and Nepal have undergone tremendous ups and downs with changing relations from time to time.
Kirantis are said to have ruled the valley in the 7th or 8th Century BC. Their famous King Yalumber is even mentioned in the epic, Mahabharat. Around 300 AD, the Lichhavis arrived from Northern India and overthrew the Kirantis. One of the legacies of the Lichhavis is the Changu Narayan Temple near Bhaktapur, a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization World Heritage Site that dates back to the 5th Century. In the early 7th Century, Amshuvarma, the first Thakuri king took over the throne from his father-in-law who was a Lichhavi. He married off his daughter Bhrikuti to the famous Tibetan King, Tsong Tsen Gampo, thus, establishing good relations with Tibet. The Lichhavis brought art and architecture to the valley, but the golden age of creativity arrived in 1200 AD with the Mallas.
The history of the Gorkha state goes back to 1559 when Dravya Shah established a kingdom in an area chiefly inhabited by Magars. During the 17th and early 18th Centuries, Gorkha continued a slow expansion, conquering various states while forging alliances with others. Prithvi Narayan dedicated himself at an early age to the conquest of the Kathmandu Valley and for more than a century, Nepal remained in isolation.
After many years of struggle when the political parties were banned, they finally mustered enough courage to start a People’s Movement in 1990. Paving the way for democracy, the then-King Birendra accepted constitutional reforms and established a multiparty parliament with the King as the Head of State and an executive Prime Minister. In May 1991, Nepal held its first parliamentary elections. In Feb 1996, the Maoist parties declared a People’s War against the monarchy and the elected government.
A horrific tragedy (01 Jun 2001) wiped out the entire royal family, including King Birendra and Queen Aishwarya. Only King Birendra’s brother, Gyanendra and his family survived. He was crowned the king. King Gyanendra abided by the elected government for some time and then dismissed the elected Parliament to wield absolute power.
In Apr 2006, another People’s Movement was launched jointly by the democratic parties focusing most energy on Kathmandu, which led to a 19-day curfew. Eventually, King Gyanendra relinquished his power and reinstated Parliament. On 21 Nov 2006, Prime Minister Girija Prasad Koirala and Maoist chairman Pushpa Kamal Dahal (Prachanda) signed the Comprehensive Peace Agreement 2006, committing to democracy and peace for the progress of the country and its people. A Constituent Assembly election was held on 10 Apr 2008. On 28 May 2008, the newly elected Constituent Assembly declared Nepal a Federal Democratic Republic, abolishing the 240-year-old monarchy.
The strategic geographical location of Nepal, which lies along the mountains of the central portion of the Himalayas has been well explained with the help of maps. A landlocked country, surrounded by India on three sides and by TAR to the north. However, I wonder if Nepal has really acted as an important bridge linking two ancient civilisations of the Asian continent, China in the north, and India in the south as brought out by the author. Even the Aryan links to the Indian subcontinent have since been debunked and, thereby, to Nepal as well.
The Indian defeat in the 1962 war against China marked significant geopolitical shifts and a change in the attitude of Nepal towards India. Also, if India could not protect itself, how could they expect India to protect Nepal? The main concern in Kathmandu was that a powerful China posed, possibly, a much larger threat to Nepal than India could militarily. The entry of China as a key strategic player in Nepal and working with the communist parties of that country has now created a better zone of influence with its economic power and is on its way to spreading its wing of eco-colonialism in Nepal. China has ultimately emerged as an important strategic player in Nepal’s affairs.
Existing fault lines especially the border disputes, political tensions, and other sensitive issues, are well addressed with clarity, offering crucial context for understanding the past and present complexities. However, some of these disputes are the legacy of the British colonisation. Kalapani salient boundary dispute along its southern and south-eastern borders mainly due to shifting riverbeds and the origin of the Mahakali River around Dharchula are the reasons given for the dispute.
The Madhesi issue has also been discussed in great detail. The Madhesi protestors in Nepal, who were dissatisfied with the newly adopted Constitution of Nepal, caused the blockade. However, the Government of India and the ruling party at that time held multiple meetings with Madhesi leaders and were believed to have provoked them which was naturally not to Nepal’s liking.
Towards a way forward for better and friendly relations with Nepal measures from the Indian side, the Nepalese side and joint measures have been discussed by the author. Reasons for Nepal trying to remain equidistant from India and China have been adequately elaborated by the author duly analysed. Former Prime Minister BP Koirala’s statement sums up the Catch-22 situation for India-Nepal relations: “Our ties shouldn’t be interpreted only on the basis of ancient history and culture. Look at Europe; it may be one culturally, but they were always fighting and killing each other. Distrust does not disappear just because there is cultural affinity. Relationships are dependent upon differing perspectives on society and differing expectations of the future”.
The author, being a second-generation Gorkha officer strongly feels that the “Presence of thousands of Indian Gurkha ex-servicemen in Nepal who have served in the Indian Army can help shape ideas and opinions in favour of India”. The author has travelled extensively the length and breadth of Nepal while posted as India’s Defence Attaché to Nepal. He continues to maintain close contacts with the Nepal-domiciled Indian Gurkha ex-servicemen with whom he has served over the years, through the changing political scenario of Nepal.
Wish the author had thrown light on the palace massacre of 01 Jun 2001, the tragedy that wiped out the entire royal family, including King Birendra and Queen Aishwarya with many of their closest relatives.
The quality of maps could have been better to be decipherable. Maybe the maps were retrieved from some very old historical archives. ‘Uncertainty is Uncomfortable’ so need to engage with the nuances even if uncomfortable which will lead to respective trust between the two Hindu nations India and Nepal. This timely researched book titled ‘Bridging Borders: India-Nepal Relations in a Changing Geopolitical Landscape’, for those seeking an insight into the India-Nepal strategic relationship will be a valuable possession, especially to the serving Gorkha officers and India-Nepal-China watchers.
Colonel RC Patial, SM, FRGS, PhD
Bridging Borders Indo-Nepal Relations in a Changing Landscape by Lieutenant General Shokin Chauhan PVSM, YSM, SM, VSM, PhD (Retd), Pages 191, Price ¹ 995/-, ISBN 978-81-968722-7-4 (HB), Pentagon Press LLP.
Journal of the United Service Institution of India, Vol. CLIV, No. 636, April-June 2024.
War Transformed: The Future of Twenty-First-Century Great Power Competition and Conflict by Mick Ryan, pages: 298, Price: B 3060, ISBN: 9781682477410, Naval Institute Press.
Introduction: Setting the Scene
The book explores strategies for predicting and adapting to the changes in future warfare. It reviews necessary institutional adjustments, military concepts and Human Resource (HR) development, concluding with the principal themes for applying military power in the 21st Century. Surprisingly, the book’s introductory section begins by referencing the Galwan clash to highlight the fusion of outdated and the most modern technologies in future wars, the propensity of minor incidents to quickly escalate and embedded surprises in conflict, technology and natural events.
Mick Ryan, the author, retired as a Major General from the Australian Army after heading the Australian Defence College, Canberra. He draws his experiences from Brigade level command appointments, leadership of the strategic planning organisations in the Australian Army and Australia’s first reconstruction task force in Afghanistan. The book ‘War Transformed’ was published on 15 Feb 2022 by the United States (US) Naval Institute Books. ‘Futura Doctrina’ is a recently established Substack page by the author where he writes about contemporary war and competition and the technological and human dimensions in these areas. ‘White Sun War’ is the latest book by the author that is a fictional account of the China-Taiwan conflict.
Chapter I: ‘Revolutions and Military Change’
In Chapter I, the author examines the impacts of the industrial and information revolutions on society and warfare while identifying upcoming disruptors such as great power competition, demographic trends, disruptive technologies and climate and natural threats.
Chapter II: ‘Future Wars’
In Chapter II, the author examines how the disruptors identified in the first chapter will reshape warfare and identifies various continuities with the war itself as the first continuity. He challenges the proponents of ‘Declining War Theory’ and emphasises that deterrence will remain the cornerstone of international security studies. He critiques the use of buzzwords and fads like ‘Gray Zone’ and advocates ‘Plain English’ in military discourse for better clarity. Additionally, the chapter delves into surprise as a continuity factor. The author opines that generating surprise should extend beyond the military domain, given the broader context of national security. He further discusses the trends in 21st Century warfare that include compressed adaptation cycles, signature management, man-unmanned teaming alongside conventional forces, narrative war and greater sovereign resilience to cater for protracted wars. The chapter concludes that militaries must evolve with new ideas, institutions and personnel.
Chapter III: ‘Institutions, Ideas and Future Military Effectiveness’
The highlight of Chapter III is the analytical framework that the author postulates as metrics to gauge the military effectiveness at the strategic, operational and tactical levels of warfare. He cites the US multi-domain operations and the institutional innovation in creating the People’s Liberation Army Strategic Support Force by China as organisational and operational innovations that have emerged as a result of both continuity and transformative changes in warfare. The chapter concludes with a cursory account of the counter-adaptation strategy to degrade adversary adaptive mechanisms.
Chapter IV
In Chapter IV, the author focuses on the HR management aspects of the military. Driving home the point, he concludes that due to the transformation in war, there is an urgent necessity to continually invest in the intellectual edge both at the individual capacity to out-think and out-plan the adversary and the institutional capacity to solve complex problems of future force design and operational concepts. He also lays out a strategic design for Professional Military Education (PME), from tactical mastery to training operational artists and nurturing strategists and national security leaders. The author also outlines a ‘Think Tank and Idea Incubators’ role for the premier military training institutes. While concluding the book, Ryan gives out propositions to assist military institutions to successfully wade through the challenges of the 21st Century.
Critique
Stamping his professional authority, the author has crafted a well-researched book that is palatable, especially to military practitioners. Despite addressing multiple themes, the author presents a coherent and structured book. The book revisits familiar themes and narratives yet stands out through unique viewpoints on traditional aspects, presented with historical analysis and logical arguments. It delves into granular details, such as advocating against the ‘Zero Error Syndrome’ and critiquing the excessive use of military jargon like ‘Grey Zone’, which resonates with military practitioners.
The author introduces novel concepts like identifying the ‘Notion of Victory’ in expanding domains of warfare, counter-adaptation strategy to offset adversaries’ adaptive mechanism and promotions linked to intellectual curiosity, which are radical departures from the traditional approach to warfare and human capital development. However, the counter-adaptation strategies lack detailed analysis, occasionally leading to recommendations that appear impractical. The emphasis laid on building the ‘Intellectual Edge’ in the human capital appears to be drawn from his seasoned experience as head of the Australian Defence College. The strategic design outlined in PME reinforces this aspect, although its applicability may vary based on the specific contexts of different countries.
Although the book was written with western militaries and coalition forces in mind, it offers excellent insights and policy recommendations for militaries worldwide. Overall, the author’s work provides a comprehensive and insightful analysis of the evolving nature of warfare and its implications for military strategy and training. The author’s book is a must-read for military practitioners and national security planners worldwide.
Colonel R Abhilash
Geopolitical Shifts and Opportunities, New Horizons in India-Southeast Asia Relations, ICWA-Delhi by Prabir De and Temjenmeren Ao, Pages:278, Price: B 1680/-ISBN: 978-93-94915-80-0, KW Publishers Pvt Ltd.
India and Southeast Asian countries have transformed their diplomatic relationship into a strategic-level partnership. Apart from having a shared cultural and historical relationship, both India and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) continue to pave their way for a world that values and accepts the active participation of the Global South countries at a strategic level. With ASEAN countries, India has registered a bilateral trade of USD 131.5 bn in 2022-23. The trade with ASEAN accounted for 11.3 per cent of India’s global trade in 2022-23. A true multifaceted partnership with Southeast Asia has opened a gateway of opportunities for both in the form of enhanced cooperation, not only bilaterally, with each Southeast Asian country but also at regional forums.
India recognises the unique identity of each nation and their centrality in constructing an equity-based structure that tackles the challenges of a growing Indo-Pacific issue. The Indo-Pacific theatre laden with a host of political, economic, environmental and security-related opportunities and challenges, requires ASEAN to be at the front. This is evident from the establishment of the ASEAN Outlook on Indo-Pacific initiative ascertains the confluence between Asia-Pacific and the Indian Ocean with a view to enhance partnership, equality, open dialogue and not push for hard power rivalry, which is also endorsed by the Indian side.
This book serves to be a pedestal for understanding the ASEAN and India relations from a comprehensive perspective. It also gives a detailed account of epigraphical and palaeographical records of similarities between the scriptures of Southeast Asia and Indic scripts and languages. Underscoring how Sanskrit became a popular ‘Courtly’ language after 4 CE, followed by the use of Pali which eventually became more common due to the spread of Buddhism. The subsequent chapters include a detailed account of ASEAN-India relations which have been exhaustively and factually described by contributors. These include a critical analysis of the maritime challenges in the South China Sea and other evolving security dimensions. The role of multilateral mechanisms in dealing with a volatile geopolitical situation, especially at the time of heightened US-China powerplay. How does India see these complex geopolitical realities and turn the tide towards its side by not only ‘Looking East’ but ‘Acting East’ is a long-drawn game to be followed. Readers also get the opportunity to read the proceedings of the conference out of which the book was carved out.
Ms Surbhi Chakraborty
India’s Historic Battles: Imphal-Kohima,1944, by Hemant Singh Katoch, Pages: 228, Price: B 310/-, ISBN: 978-9354899126, HarperCollins India.
The book – ‘Imphal Kohima 1944’ is the first battlefield guide for Imphal and Kohima. It looks at what the present-day states of Manipur and Nagaland have to offer about the two battles and the Second World War, including battlefields, memorials, airfields, cemeteries and museums. In the process, it describes the forces that clashed at the time, their strategies and the bitter fighting that ensued.
The book gives a very detailed overview of the clash between the British Fourteenth Army and the Japanese Fifteenth Army at Imphal in Manipur and at Kohima in the Naga Hills of what was then Assam in 1944, which was the turning point of the Japanese invasion of India and march through Asia was later stopped, with the Allies subsequently driving them out of Burma in 1945. The Japanese lost some 30,000 men, with another 23,000 injured, in what is considered one of their greatest-ever defeats on land. In Apr 2013, Imphal-Kohima was named ‘Britain’s Greatest Battle’ by the United Kingdom’s National Army Museum. Indians fought on both sides as part of the Fourteenth Army and, albeit, in much smaller numbers, alongside the Japanese as soldiers of the Indian National Army.
The book is divided into three main chapters, which are Imphal, Kohima, Ledo Road and the Hump, in which the battles of Kohima and Imphal are described in great detail for the reader to understand the intricacies of jungle warfare as faced in the thick and dense fields of Northeast.
A battlefield guide has been given along with the book to assist in the mapping of relics of war and contribute to increasing awareness about this chapter of history. The guide also briefly presents sites that describe the forces that clashed at the time, their strategies and the bitter fighting that ensued. The guide also briefly presents sites of interest in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh that are linked to the war-era Ledo/Stillwell Road and fights over the ‘Hump’. The book gives practical information for visitors in terms of security situations, permits, transport links, accommodation, season to visit, tour operators, etc.
The author has taken a number of photographs of the present-day sites, war memorials and historical places that are suitably placed in the book, along with maps, to give a better description of the battle and correlation between the two.
Colonel Ravinder Kumar Sharma (Retd)
Author : Book Reviews,
Category : Journal
Pages : 337 | Price : ₹CLIV/636 | Year of Publication : April 2024-June 2024